With the growing global fear of a major pandemic, avian influenza virus research has increased greatly in importance during this young century. In Avian Influenza Virus, an expert team of researchers and diagnosticians examine the fundamental yet essential virological methods for AI virus research and diagnostics as well as some of the newest molecular procedures currently used for basic and applied research. Exciting, cutting-edge new methods focus on studying the virus itself and work with avian hosts, an area greatly lacking in research. Following the format of the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology™ series, each chapter provides readily reproducible laboratory protocols offering step-by-step instruction and lists of the necessary equipment for the task.

Comprehensive and timely, Avian Influenza Virus equips diagnosticians and researchers with the current tools and information they need to learn more about this high impact disease.

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In the modern era where rapid and relatively easy global travel is commonplace, the spread of infectious diseases, particularly influenza, represents a very real and almost annual threat to communities worldwide. Current extensive and global interest in influenza lies in the increasingly common reports of the transmission of a number of avian influenza virus strains to humans. Due to the high morbidity and mortality rates observed in humans infected by these strains, influenza is currently under the spotlight. With its accessible approach, broken down into easy to read chapters, this book tells the medical practitioner everything they need to know about influenza and the implications of avian flu. Besides reviewing and updating the biological characteristics of the influenza viruses, this key text explains the epidemiological and immune mechanisms that have important roles in, and form the background to, the pathogenesis of influenza infection. The book covers: the clinical features of influenza as it presents in different population group; the current situation with respect to the use of vaccines for immunization against influenza; the nature and rationale behind the recent development of the anti-influenza drugs; and, the management of influenza in general practice. This revised and updated edition also includes the new NICE guidelines on the treatment of influenza. This is an indispensable guide for medical practitioners working in either the general community or industrial- or company-based practices. This highly topical book will also be found useful by hospital-based consultants, junior doctors, nursing staff and other individuals connected with the healthcare profession.

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Ferrets used for avian influenza are in need of a tissue. Finally, scientists have found a way to test on animals by using ferret sneezes. Yes, they are making them sneeze. It is a very simple process for the ferrets, they put them to sleep and they run salt water up their noses. The result is a great big sneeze into a dish under their nose. This is important. The ferret snot is being used to study the avian influenza virus or 'Bird Flu'. It seems that these little creatures can catch a few of the viruses that humans can. Mice do not have this ability and it makes the ferret sneeze very special.

Freeze Dried Sneeze

These secretions that are captured from a ferret are very secure. The Center For Disease Control takes this little mess seriously. There are precautions and security everywhere. You must wear full protective gear when being around it. This calls for double gloves, scrub gowns, eyewear, and even full air flow masks! You have to go through a fingerprint scan and iris scan just to gain access.

I wonder if the ferrets used for Avian Influenza have any idea how special they really are. Avian Influenza is serious and deadly to birds and humans and possibly mice and ferrets. That is why they are being studied. Scientists are trying to find a link between ferrets and mice carrying and transmitting the flu.

Some Findings

Since ferrets used for Avian influenza first started, a few findings have come to light. The ferrets are known for their ability to catch the same flu viruses that humans do. They are a perfect model. Ferrets used for Avian Influenza seem to not give the influenza to others very easy. As of right now, humans are safe from catching it from ferrets but, if a strain appears that can affect them, we are in serious trouble and need to watch out.

Little Helpers

Ferrets used for Avian Influenza research are our little helpers. They have what it takes in their sneezes to show scientists what amazing creatures they really are and how much like humans they are. All the major precautions are taken when handling the snot from the sneezes.

It can be deadly to the humans but, ferrets have a hard time giving it to others. Ferret mucous is taken in a painless not lethal way from the ferrets. They are put to sleep and made to sneeze with salt water up the nose. What an interesting life they must have. To know that every sneeze is locked away in a freezer and sits in a level 3 security zone is exciting. The excitement builds!

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Avian influenza outbreak: Chicken dust - as usual The Swazi Observer The outbreak of the avian influenza virus in nearby South Africa may only bother the farmer much but the average meat merchant of the 'chicken dust' fame seems least worried, it is business as usual. True it was mainly the ostrich farmers that were ...

Read the full story:
Avian influenza outbreak: Chicken dust - as usual - The Swazi Observer

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The Avian Influenza, more commonly known as bird flu, is an infection caused by bird viruses, which are naturally found among birds. Birds usually carry viruses but the Avian Influenza virus is extremely contagious. Fortunately for mankind they have primarily made only domestic birds like ducks, chickens and turkeys very ill. Infected birds carry and transmit the virus through saliva and excretion, which when domesticated birds make contact with these excretions, they too get infected. These birds can then either get mildly ill or they can get severely ill or die.

What is the risk of Avian Influenza to human health?

Fear of an Avian Flu H5N1 pandemic has reached historic percentage of the population. Scientist worldwide tell us that if the Bird Flu changes though a mutated strain that becomes easily transmittable between humans, the result of this sickness and deaths on humanity could be disastrous.

The cause of many of the infected human cases has arisen from direct contact with infected birds or unclean surfaces where their droppings have settled. Everyone should understand that it is currently not common for humans to become infected from other humans. Even though the risk of the H5N1 virus infecting humans is very low, for the few people that has become infected by contact with affected birds, that infection has caused severe illness and has been 50% fatal.

The reason most people are worried is that the potential for avian influenza viruses has the ability to mutate into a new virus, which could affect humans worldwide. What this would mean is that the virus would slowly change into a new virus, which could become easily transmittable from person to person.

Today, there has been no evidence of human-to-human spread of the H5N1 strain. Furthermore there is no concrete evidence that a new avian influenza pandemic is threatening the world. Nevertheless, one cannot be too careful, so everyone sits and waits.

How can we prevent the Avian Influenza?

The only prevention method humans have devised against the avian influenza or bird flu is a vaccination against the illness. But for most of us, common sense should prevail and we should know that when anyone comes into contact with any infected bird, animal or person, make sure that you wash your hands before anything else. By washing you eliminate the change of it entering your eyes or mouth.

Taking some basic steps such as washing your hands frequently and sneezing and coughing into tissues can go a long way in preventing the spread of the virus. It is important to make sure that you stay up to date with yearly flu shots. The current annual flu shots may not prevent the avian flu but it will ensure that you do not get the annual flu. If someone were to have the annual flu and then come into contact with the avian influenza virus, this could be a perfect mix for mutating the Avian Flu strain into something new and more contagious. Some basic precautions to prevent a worldwide pandemic would include:

Many are preparing themselves with an ample supply of NIOSH-approved N-95 filtering face piece, disposable respirators, eye protection, protective gloves, Tyvek suits, hand sanitizer, and other useful personal protective equipment.
Begin focusing on instructing everyone on the proper donning of equipment, waste disposal and decontamination procedures, where necessary. If you wait until a pandemic occurs, there may not be enough supplies on the shelves to protect you or time to make other preparations.
Everyone should be sure that his or her first aid (medical) kits are adequately supplied and refreshed. Have readily available extra basic medical supplies including; bandages, pain relievers, stomach remedies, cough and cold medicines, etc. All of these items may be useful during other types of emergencies, such as power outages, tornadoes, hurricanes, winter storms, and other natural disasters.
Make sure that everyone in your family or place of work is aware of personal hygiene, i.e., washing hands with soap and hot water, especially following any food preparation and after trips to the bathrooms. Everyone should clean his or her hands regularly with waterless, alcohol-based hand sanitizer, covering the mouth when sneezing or coughing, etc.
Encourage family members to have any prescription and non-prescription drugs or other health supplies on-hand, including drinking fluids with electrolytes, vitamins, etc. incases of quarantine or evacuation to a shelter.
And everyone should begin to store enough supplies at home, i.e., water and food in advance of a pandemic. Remember that during a pandemic, we may not be able to get supplies; stores may be sold out, or could be closed due to illness.

Avian Flu: Potential Crisis

Currently, the Bird Flu has been affecting Asia, Middle East and parts of Europe. The rest of the world is keeping a close eye on this illness to make sure that it doesn't cross any more borders. Avian influenza, though common with wild birds, can devastate domesticated birds swiftly and quickly. The potential crisis is that humans do not have built in immunities to this virus. If it mutates and infects humans, they would not be able to fight it off without medical intervention. Since the strain has not yet mutated, there is not a medicine readily available that can cure it. The only way we can fight this potential crisis is through everyone using appropriate prevention measures.

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.Introduction-Causative-agent

Equine influenza (EI) is caused by a type A Orthomyxovirus. The viruses are 80 to 120 nanometers (nm) in diameter, and consist of a core of eight separate segments of single-strand ribonucleic acid (RNA) surrounded by a spiked arrangement of glycoproteins. These viruses are classified based on the relative numbers of hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) glycoproteins in the lipid outer layer. Strains (or subtypes) of influenza viruses are formally described according to their type (A, B, or C), host species, location of first isolation (city or country), strain number (if any), year of first isolation, and antigenic subtype (H and N designation); shorthand methods of identification are limited to the H/N description. The two major strains known to cause disease in equids are H7N7 (A/eq/Prague/56[H7N7], type A influenza, equine, first isolated in Czechoslovakia in 1956) and H3N8 (A/eq/Miami/2/63[H3N8], type A influenza, equine, first isolated in Miami, strain 2, isolated in 1963). The two subtypes are immunologically distinct. Sub lineages of the two major strains (e.g., A/eq/Newmarket/2/93[H3N8], A/eq/Kentucky/92[N3H8]) have emerged due to antigenic shift (reassortment of the genome resulting in genetic alteration) and antigenic drift (point mutations in the genetic code causing minor alterations in the H and N glycoproteins).

Natural-distribution

Equine influenza affects horses, donkeys, mules, and other equidae. The virus is widespread with only Iceland, New Zealand, and Australia considered to be free of the virus. The H7N7 subtype is believed to be extinct or present at very low levels. The H3N8 subtype appears to be a mutation of an avian influenza virus.An outbreak involving a modified H3N8 subtype (designated A/eq/Jilin/89[H3N8]) occurred in China in 1989. High morbidity (80%) and mortality (20%) were observed. Other important outbreaks of the H3N8 subtype have occurred worldwide, including in Trinidad (1979), Argentina (1985), South Africa (1986), and Jamaica (1989). Most confirmed outbreaks occurred at racetracks; as a result, horseracing activities were suspended for prolonged periods of time, resulting in marked economic losses. In Nepal this disease was reported in Nepalganj in year 1988/1989.Same year disease outbreak had occurred in many part of India too. Recently Australia recorded the outbreak of this disease in many part of country. As mule and horses are being used as draught animal in many remote part of country. As these days we all are talking about avian influenza how much we are aware about it.

Transmission

Equine influenza is spread via aerosolized respiratory secretions and fomites, including contaminated inanimate objects and people moving between infected and uninfected horses. The most common source of infection and outbreak is the introduction of a new animal into the herd. The incubation period is usually one to three days. Incubation periods approaching seven days have been observed, but are less common. Infected horses shed virus in their respiratory secretions during the incubation period, and continue to excrete the virus for four to five days after clinical signs are observed. It is also possible for an infected animal to shed the virus for 7-10 days after the animal has appeared to recover. Viral shedding is thought to reach its peak during the first 24 to 48 hours the animal is febrile. Infected droplets may be able to spread as far as 50 yards. Virtually 100% of horses that are exposed become infected. Nearly 20% of infected horses do not exhibit clinical signs of disease, but still shed virus and can spread the infection Morbidity-and-mortality

Morbidity associated with EI in naïve populations is estimated at 60 to 90%; to date, mortality of horses with confirmed infection has ranged from 1% to 20%. Higher fatality rates are observed in foals, malnourished or immunocompromised equids, and donkeys.

.Clinical-signs

Equine influenza virus causes clinical disease of the upper respiratory tract. The virus spreads rapidly, and naïve or immunocompromised horses are at higher risk of developing disease. Clinical signs include fever, coughing, serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, depression, muscle soreness, anorexia, and enlarged regional lymph nodes. Colic (abdominal pain) and edema of the legs and scrotum have also been observed with influenza infection.In the absence of secondary complications, healthy, adult horses usually recover from EI within one to two weeks; however, coughing may persist for a longer period. Young foals lacking adequate maternal antibodies are at risk of developing a rapidly fatal viral pneumonia. Recovery from EI is complicated and prolonged by the development of secondary bacterial infections. Deaths have been reported as caused by secondary bacterial pneumonia and pleuritis. Purpura hemorrhagica, a potentially fatal, immune-mediated disease, has also developed secondary to EI infection. Fatal interstitial myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) can occur during or after infection.

Diagnosis

A tentative diagnosis of EI is often made based on clinical signs. Diagnosis can be confirmed by detection of the virus in samples from nasal swabs. Traditionally, a diagnosis of EI was confirmed by inoculating embryonated hen eggs with material from nasopharyngeal swabs and subsequently isolating the virus. Alternatively, paired acute and convalescent serum samples can be submitted for EI hemagglutinin inhibition; a fourfold-or greater increase in antibody titer is diagnostic for EI. Other diagnostic methods include reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and nested reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. Reverse transcription PCR is more rapid and sensitive than serologic testing, and more rapid and specific than virus isolation.Preferred samples for diagnostic testing are fresh nasopharyngeal swabs that are shipped overnight at room temperature. If serologic testing is desired, a minimum of 2 ml of whole blood should be collected in an EDTA (lavender top) or ACD (yellow top) tube and shipped overnight at room temperature.

Treatment

As for all viral disease, treatment is largely supportive. Good husbandry and nutrition may assist horses in mounting an effective immune response. Rest reduces viral shedding. Because tracheal clearance rates (an indication of the ability of the respiratory tract to eliminate particles, mucus, and infective organisms) are reduced for up to one month after infection, rest is also recommended after resolution of clinical signs. Antipyretics are recommended for horses with fevers exceeding 105°F (40.5 C) and/or severe depression and anorexia. Pneumonia in more severely affected horses responds best to a combination of broad-spectrum bactericidal antibiotics and maintenance of hydration via intravenous administration of fluids.

Prevention-and-control

Inactivated intramuscular and intranasal vaccines are commercially available for prevention of influenza in equids. The American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP) has produced Guidelines for Infectious Disease Outbreaks; these guidelines state that the administration of booster influenza vaccines to apparently healthy animals in the face of an outbreak may be of value. For animals that were unvaccinated prior to the outbreak, the use of a modified live intranasal vaccine may be preferred because it can induce protective immunity within 5 days. The EI virus is an enveloped virus that appears to be easily killed by disinfectants in common use in veterinary facilities, such as quaternary ammonium compounds and 10% bleach solutions. The most common source of infection is the introduction of a new animal into the herd; therefore, isolation of newly acquired animals is recommended. Isolation protocols should be rigorously applied for horses showing signs of respiratory disease, and should be maintained for 21 days after the last horse has appeared to recover from the infection. Clothing, equipment, surfaces, and hands should be cleaned and disinfected after exposure to horses known or suspected to be infected.

equine flu outbreak newmarket 2012

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